Recent advances and current challenges of new approach methodologies in developmental and adult neurotoxicity testing.

Adult neurotoxicity (ANT) and developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) assessments aim to understand the adverse effects and underlying mechanisms of toxicants on the human nervous system. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on the so-called new approach methodologies (NAMs). The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), together with European and American regulatory agencies, promote the use of validated alternative test systems, but to date, guidelines for regulatory DNT and ANT assessment rely primarily on classical animal testing. Alternative methods include both non-animal approaches and test systems on non-vertebrates (e.g., nematodes) or non-mammals (e.g., fish). Therefore, this review summarizes the recent advances of NAMs focusing on ANT and DNT and highlights the potential and current critical issues for the full implementation of these methods in the future. The status of the DNT in vitro battery (DNT IVB) is also reviewed as a first step of NAMs for the assessment of neurotoxicity in the regulatory context. Critical issues such as (i) the need for test batteries and method integration (from in silico and in vitro to in vivo alternatives, e.g., zebrafish, C. elegans) requiring interdisciplinarity to manage complexity, (ii) interlaboratory transferability, and (iii) the urgent need for method validation are discussed.

Prevalence of yersinia species in traditional and commercial dairy products in isfahan province, iran.

BACKGROUND: Yersinia species, especially Yersinia enterocolitica, are considered as the most prevalent milk-borne pathogens. Several serological and molecular techniques have been developed for rapid and safe diagnosis of yersiniosis. OBJECTIVES: This study was carried out to assess the prevalence rate of Yersinia species, especially Y. enterocolitica, in milk and dairy products in Isfahan province, Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 285 commercial and traditional dairy products as well as 267 pasteurized and raw milk samples were collected during one year. The samples were studied by culturing and the positive-culture samples were investigated using PCR techniques. RESULTS: The results of culture showed that 52 (9.42%) and 28 (5.07%) of the total 552 milk and dairy samples were positive for presences of Yersinia species and Y. enterocolitica, respectively. Totally, 24 of 28 Y. enterocolitica isolates by culture were positive in PCR test (4.59%). Raw cow milk and traditional cheese had the highest prevalence of Yersinia species and Y. enterocolitica, respectively. There were no positive results for pasteurized cow milk, raw camel milk, commercial ice cream, commercial cheese, yoghurt, Doogh, butter and curd. Yersinia species and Y. enterocolitica had the highest prevalence in autumn (15.15% and 10.6%, respectively). Significant differences regarding P < 0.05 were observed between the presences of Yersinia species and Y. enterocolitica in various samples and seasons. CONCLUSIONS: Sanitation and pasteurization are the best ways to increase the microbial quality and particularly decrease the load of Yersinia species. The ability of Yersinia species to growth in Doogh, yoghurt, curd and butter is very low.